These are exciting times for alternative sources of energy, especially so for the renewable, recyclable sources often referred to as alternative fuels. The primary sources of feedstocks include all of the animal fats, recycled cooking oils/restaurant greases, vegetable oils, and ethanol as derived from grain. Though a number of additional cellulistic resources such as those derived from lignin biomass materials are often referenced, the above feedstocks are currently available with the technology and infrastructure already developed for their production, and certainly will be renewably available based on crop and animal production practices.
Segments such as the ethanol industry have grown to over two billion gallons produced annually. It is estimated that 18-20 new ethanol plants will come into production this year, with production projections reaching five billion gallons annually. That acceptance, current growth, and interest has taken some two to three decades.
The stakeholders for biodiesel comprising the potential feedstocks and infrastructure has lacked the synergism to fully exploit the benefits and biodiesel potential in what could have been a more rapid adoption rate. Feedstock specificity in defining biodiesel has hampered the understanding within many entities, regulatory agencies, legislators, and end users. Feedstock neutrality remains as a controversy that is in need of resolution for biodiesel to become a “truck/tractor side” term like ethanol has to the gasoline industry.
Renewable and recyclable sourced fuels must be and now are recognized as being an important part of the United States as well as the global energy plans. An increasing concern exists regarding economic, air/water quality, and energy security issues related to the nation’s continued reliance upon fossil-derived fuels. The concern is particularly evident as it involves our dependence on imported petroleum. The United States has a trade deficit of over $490 billion per year with respect to imported petroleum. Carbon emissions and other highly toxic chemicals produced as a by-product of fossil-fuel combustion have been shown to significantly contribute to human health, urban smog, and perhaps global warming.
The percentage of U.S. energy needs met by imported oil has been a linear increase beginning in 1973 at 25 percent, increasing to 35 percent in 1980, 47 percent in 1990, 58 percent in 2000, and projected to be at least 69 percent in 2010. The recently revised national energy policy has recognized the importance of renewable energy sources with greater interest than at any other time. A historical review, however, portrays an interest level that has been somewhat cyclical towards renewable/alternative fuels rather than a sustaining research, technology development, and regulatory attitude that encourages commercialization. It would therefore be projected that enhanced exploration and sourcing of petroleum based sources will continue to command a significant strategic segment within the overall national energy plans and policies.
In reality, alternative fuels must, in the foreseeable future, be considered as supplemental and ancillary energy resources to those currently available. It has been projected that up to seven to eight percent of the current demand could be sourced from the renewable, recyclable resources previously referenced. This level of contribution, however, is extremely significant when reviewing the very fickle supply/demand relationship that exists with petroleum-based products.
Additionally, the bioenergy sources will undoubtedly be used as resources for blending with fossil fuels for not only extension, but also enhancement of fuel quality and environmental benefits. Ethanol is again an excellent example when used as a 10 percent blend into gasoline.
As alternative fat and oil fuel sources, the United States produces an approximate 23.7 billion pounds of plant oils and 11.6 billion pounds of animal fats and recycled cooking oils (U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) averages, 1995-2000) annually as illustrated below.
Vegetable Oil Production (Billion Pounds)
Soybean - 18.340
Peanuts - 0.220
Sunflower - 1.000
Cottonseed - 1.010
Others - 0.669
Corn - 2.420
Total - 23.659
Animal Fats (Billion Pounds)
Edible tallow - 1.625
Inedible tallow - 3.859
Lard and grease - 1.306
Yellow grease - 2.633
Poultry fat - 2.215
Total - 11.638
As can be noted, soybean oil as a category comprises the largest resource of a specific fat/oil. Domestically, soy oil represents approximately one-half (52 percent) of total resources. Animal fat resources and recycled cooking oils/restaurant greases comprise 33 percent of the total potential resource. Both soybeans and thus soy oil production as well as the animal supplies are expected to expand in ensuing years. Additionally, soy oil supplies from South American production is projected to continue to expand.
Biodiesel
Biodiesel has taken a more prominent position in the world of fuels most recently. Its use and potential as a renewable source of fuel for diesel engines for transportation purposes, trucks, buses, and tractors is now well recognized. Petrodiesel fuel usage annually in the United States is approximately 54 billion gallons. The major increases in fuel usage have been the market segment delivered by the heavy and light diesel transport truck segment. Over 95 percent of all U.S. freight is delivered by trucks powered by diesel. This usage is estimated to require approximately 39 billion gallons of the annual total. Additionally, this is the segment that contributes heavily to the environmental challenges of our urban and intercities. Though on-road usage is a primary utilization for biodiesel, stationary engines used in other industrial applications, power generation, mass transit, commercial marine, and home heating, all offer significant opportunities as an alternative fuel use.
Biodiesel is defined as a monoalkyl ester of long-chain fatty acids that are derived from animal fats, vegetable oils, or recycled cooking oils/restaurant grease. Biodiesel is technically an oxygenated fuel produced by the reaction of a triglyceride (fat or oil) with an alcohol in the presence of a catalyst. The primary catalysts used currently are sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide, though research and emerging technologies are continuing to incorporate process efficiency improvements and product quality in which catalysts are an important contribution component of process research.
The resultant fat/oil, alcohol, catalyst reaction produces alcohol (methyl) esters (biodiesel) and glycerine. The combination of 100 units of triglycerides with 10 units of methanol result in 100 units of methyl esters and 10 units of glycerine. Thus a 1:1 reaction rate of triglycerides into biodiesel is achieved with the most efficient processes and results in approximately 7.35 pounds of fat/oil converting to one U.S. gallon of biodiesel.
Attention to Quality
It has been extremely important that all biodiesel production, regardless of process and origin of feedstock, be quality fuel meeting established specifications. This characteristic has been important during the initial research stage, demonstration stage, and continuing into the commercialization stage. It is an increasing concern now that there are more evaluators and perhaps critics making judgments relative to fuel quality. Engine manufacturers and auto/trucker makers have generally been supportive of biodiesel but are seeking a continued assurance of quality.
The American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) is a primary organization that reviews test procedures and establishes specifications for a variety of products including fuel. Final ASTM specifications for 100 percent biodiesel (neat biodiesel) have recently been approved. ASTM D 6751-2 will now govern the approved specifications for biodiesel. Though the properties and limits cannot be officially published until final registration, expected by April 2002, the basic approved changes from the Provisional Specifications (PS121) are illustrated in Table 1.
The sulfur level within the approved specifications is 0.050 percent maximum (500 parts per million (ppm)). This is the currently approved maximum for diesel fuels as well as biodiesel. A mandated reduction in sulfur levels has been published by the Environmental Protection Agency requiring that a 15 ppm level be met for all fuels by 2007. Thus there are immediate plans to re-ballot a second grade of biodiesel at 15 ppm sulfur content. The proposed test method of D-5453 is not readily available from all petroleum testing laboratories. Additionally, there has been considerable variation within the test methods used for sulfur determination in both biodiesel and fats/oils raw feedstocks when comparing D-4294, D-2622, and D-5453 methods and laboratories. Biodiesel contains a very low level of sulfur compared to diesel fuel. Thus the schedule for meeting the 2007 mandates will be much easier for biodiesel when compared to the petroleum based fuels. Lowering sulfur in diesel fuel becomes concerning to engine and fuel-injection manufacturers that the changes will negatively affect fuel lubricity and have damaging consequences to their equipment. Being low in sulfur, biodiesel can, even in low-blend concentrations, improve the lubricity of diesel fuel to acceptable levels. Sulfur levels in both diesel and biodiesel will be a debatable issue during the next five-year conversion process but environmentally is an important issue.
To supplement the attention for quality, a National Biodiesel Accreditation Commission (NBAC) has been established by biodiesel producers and marketers. It is designed to help assure that biodiesel meets the ASTM standard throughout the production distribution and marketing functions. These systems include, but are not limited to, sampling, testing, and documentation of biodiesel specifications.
A Growing Market
The current U.S. biodiesel market penetration is still relatively small. During the past year, a 25 million gallon usage was estimated, which represents a 350 percent increased demand over 2000. There are currently 14 biodiesel suppliers in the United States, but several others with plans or are evaluating plans both within the United States and Canada are known.
There are several stimulating factors for the enhanced commercialization as well as for its usage. Several major farm organizations have actively promoted and developed infrastructures to market the fuel. Growmark, Inc., Bloomington, IL, offers on-farm delivery of fuel blends that include up to 20 percent biodiesel. Most recently, the cooperative has made biodiesel available at pumps throughout their mid-west marketing area.
Additionally, several engine and equipment manufacturers have endorsed the use of biodiesel for their diesel-powered products. Notably, John Deere recently made that announcement. However, John Deere’s announcement statement referenced the sanction of only soy based biodiesel, but further officially approved the use of biodiesel that meets national standards in all of its diesel-powered products. It is hoped that engine and equipment suppliers understand that a substantial number of their equipment are likewise purchased and used by livestock, poultry producers, and the animal industries sector. This is an excellent example of the confusion developed within the marketing arena for biodiesel. Soy diesel, being an original term for biodiesel, has wrongly been confused with the mere mixing of soy oil into diesel fuel, a practice that should not be followed.
The biodiesel process removes the glycerine component, which can damage engines with extended use. Additionally, there are a number of state and federal legislative initiatives that are being promoted using definitions outside the scope of feedstock neutrality, actions that are not conducive for acquiring the support for a unified agricultural position. Whether the legislation is pointed at blend level mandates, sales or excise tax relief, state/federal fleet mandates, or other production or marketing incentives, those feedstock stakeholders excluded from the legislative initiatives must unfortunately counter with its opposition. Biodiesel could become a very fragmented industry with opposing special interest groups hindering the adoption process and reducing the opportunities that biodiesel currently commands.
Government’s Role in Biodiesel
There are several pending legislative initiatives that could be quite stimulatory to the promotion of biodiesel research, technology development and expansion, the expansion of the production and marketing infrastructure, and the general acceptance of its use as a fuel. Senate Bill S 1058 (Hutchison/Dayton), and supported heavily by Lincoln and Grassley, is a referenced example. The proposed bill would provide for tax relief incentives for the use of biodiesel as a low blend mandate and tax incentives currently proposed at one cent for each one percent blend level up to a maximum of 20 cents. This legislation is a focus of attention, having undergone several modifications and transformations into a Comprehensive Energy Program that could incorporate tax provisions, renewable standards, alternative fuel standards, and other special interest group’s initiatives into the legislative. Unfortunately, the current wording of the proposed legislation excludes animal fats and recycled cooking/restaurant greases, or 32 percent of the potential that currently is available for renewable/recyclable biodiesel production.
The availability for government crop subsidies and incentives has likewise been very limited for feedstock sources other than for oil seed and grain crops. An example of the magnitude was a review of the 2001 gross income derived from an Indiana farm. Gross income generation from soybeans accounted to 61.9 percent from the actual sale of the soybeans while 38.1 percent was derived from Loan Deficiency Payments, Production Flexibility Payments, and Market Loss Assistance Programs providing 30.4 percent, 3.6 percent, and 4.1 percent respectively.
The USDA has recently provided for the inclusion of animal fats, yellow grease, and recycled cooking oils/restaurant greases as eligible commodities for the production of biodiesel. Production increases above the previous year of biodiesel produced from these feedstocks will now be eligible for commodity payments. The formula for determining the credits derived, however, favors vegetable oils by approximately 2.5 times that for other feedstocks. Last year, USDA reported an increase in output of 141.3 million gallons of ethanol and 6.4 million gallons of biodiesel produced nearly exclusively from soy oil as a result of last year’s program that included primarily grains and oil seed crops. The animal fat derived resources are important to the full contribution that biodiesel has to provide to meeting the established mission for our country to become more self sufficient in energy demand.
Conclusion
Yes, these are exciting times for alternative fuels. The excitement is real and can be fully realized now. It is somewhat unfortunate that the inter-relationship and very close synergism that exists between animal and crop production can’t be accepted by the producer groups. The very high utilization of the grain produced ultimately is for animal production. This is true whether it is consumed as grain or the by-products resulting from further processing such as distillers grain and gluten feed. Currently, 85 percent of the soybean meal derived from producing the 11 pounds of soy oil from each bushel of soybeans is used to produce livestock and poultry. Can it not be accepted that this same livestock and poultry are the same that generates the 11.6 annual billion pounds of animal derived fats?
In conclusion, animal fats and the recycled oils that are primarily processed by the rendering industry are alternative and renewable bioenergy 2002 resources. This article has not addressed their important value as alternative fuels. The Fats and Proteins Research Foundation (FPRF), in cooperation with the University of Georgia, has a project underway to define the energy and pollution reduction benefits of tallow, choice white grease, poultry fat, and yellow grease – a project that has received global attention and will be detailed upon its conclusion through FPRF publications.
Tech Topics - April 2002 Render